The validity and reliability of visual based research.

Visual sociology is concerned primarily with the visual dimensions surrounding social life, and as such it's main focus on research is based on photography and  documentary filmaking which can raise questions concerning the validity and reliability of such research methods.
A key problem in the reliability of visual based research is, according to Uwe Flick is the possibility of heavily influencing or the manipulation of the subject or image (Flick;2009:p-245) either consciously, through asking the subject to pose, or even they are lit in the image, or unconsciously in that the researchers very presence can affect a subjects behaviour or the researcher being selective in allowing what the camera can see.
This can also affect the process of data collection, leading into more ethical dilemmas concerning either 'covert' photography in an effort to not influence behaviour and thus the subject or group unaware they are even being researched. 
The context of a shot can affect the validity of the data as we are only being shown a single frame or 'snapshot', frozen in time with little to no way of  factoring in an understanding of the external or internal factors that shaped this single frame.(Prosser:1998:p-125).



Reference

Flick,Uwe    An Introduction to Qualitative Research
                    Sage publications
                   2009

Prosser.Jon Image Based Research: A Sourcebook for Qualitative Researchers
                   Routledge
                   1998

Interpellation

Interpellation or hailing will be used to offer an analysis of the photographs representing division and barriers.
This ideology relies on the moment, you as the individual choose to react or to recognise, take on the role that is offered to you, the addressed (Thwaites et al: 1994:p-163).
 It does not matter how this role is taken, simply by responding you are recognizing yourself as the subject. This suggest that there is two opposing meanings of 'subject'. The first being the 'source of action' (Thwaites et al;1994:p-163), the individual who has made the decision and is inherently responsible for it the addressee.
 The second being when one is talked about being subject to something ie the Law. In this meaning we have no choice or addresser.

Interpellation makes you a subject in both cases and can be seen in the photographs offered in this blog.
For example in this image of a front door, offers you to recreate the role of photographer in that you accept what this door means and you now recognize as being interpellated by the door itself, in that it is expressing the social and cultural relationships inherent with a generic front door.

  This can also be seen with the above image of a barrier, which addresses the subject with role of perhaps health and safety purposes in that it is blocking an individual from getting to a certain space. The subject then by simply walking past this and entering through the correct entrance has been interpellated and has accepted the role given to them. This also raises the 'phatic' relationship between addresser and addressee and connects all individuals and subjects through their links to the interpellating addresser, in this case the barrier (Thwaites et al; 1994:p-165).
Through use of interpellation, in particular using this visual research we can also apply the model of 'hegonomy' which can illustrate the power relations between various groups, originating not from conflict but through use of consent (Thwaites et al;1994:p-169).
Using this model  like interpellation, ideology is not forced but offered to the individual in terms of something you already agree upon even if this is values and interest of a dominant group that is not your own(Thwaites;1994:p-170). This can be seen in the following image, that of a door dividing a staff area from the shopfloor. As soon as a member of staff enters this door onto the shopfloor they, through consent will adopt the values and interests of the dominant social class such as the management.

In conclusion interpellation offers the visual researcher a valuable tool for analysis as it can show how society can be affected by any number of factors. It also allows the researcher the opportunity to share the process of being interpellated by an addresser through the visual recording of an addressee.

Reference

Thwaites, Tony             Introducing Cultural and Media Studies
Davis, Lloyd                 Palgrave Macmillan
Mules Warwick             1994

Chapter 8 Photographs within the Sociological Research Process

This paper will attempt to offer a critical analysis of Jon Prosser and Dana Schwartz’s work ‘Photographs within the Sociological Research Process’. This piece of works attempts to illustrate just how photographs can be used in research in the field of sociology. This works looks at three key areas found in the research process, those being research design, data collection and concluding with the final analysis whilst using a qualitative framework (Prosser; 1998: P-115).

A major key point that is introduced early on in the text is the understanding and acknowledgement that, the use of photographs in research can be found in many varying disciplines, which as a result can lead to visual data being used and interpreted in different ways in regards to the research being carried out. However researchers using photographs according to Prosser ‘share common understandings about what constitutes a ‘qualitative study’ (Prosser; 117: P-117).

Prosser begins the paper by stating and laying the foundations of the process of research design.

‘Research design makes explicit a plan for conducting a study, proffers a model and justification for establishing the validity of data and inferences drawn from them, and implicitly indicates a researcher’s ability to successfully conduct a study.’ (Prosser; 1998; P-117)

This sets an archetype for the carrying out of visual research; however this would also suggest that researchers must conform to a rigid platform of design, that whilst remaining image orientated must also be left open to interpretation to more recognised forms of research (Prosser; 1998: P-117). This illustrates the fact that whilst photography is a viable research tool, it is not something that is commonly used in sociological research and as such very few models of photographic research exists. This can be viewed as a weakness in image based research as very few models exist, therefore drastically reducing the amount of data that can be collected for research.

Prosser the goes onto describe Rieger’s 1996 paper which shows relationship between both visual and social change. This paper shows the strength of good research design as it combines both quantitative and qualitative data. This design offers a stable framework and offers features that are vitally important to any sociological study, a theoretical approach (Prosser; 1998: P-118) in this case the relationship between visual change and that of social change. 

However an antithesis to this idea of rigidity in research design is that of Harper’s 1192 case study of ‘Willie’ (Prosser; 1998: P-118) an auto mechanic. In this study Prosser highlights the strength of ‘grounded theory’ in image based research and how this allows the theory to make itself known from the data collected and allows a certain level  fluidity  to be present in the research design and not being forced to stay with a single idea or theory that can shape the research itself.

Prosser then goes into great detail in what is arguably the most important aspect of research, that being the collection of data.

‘Important steps in formulating any study involve identifying, locating, and gaining access to an appropriate research site and the sources of data it can yield.’ (Prosser; 1998: P-119)

This section of Prosser’s paper stresses the importance of how, as visual researcher we gather our data. Whether this is done in an ‘overt’ or a ‘covert’ method of approach is taken or the construction of a research diary. Both ‘covert’ and ‘overt’ raising a number of both ethical and procedural questions, especially in terms of an image based research context.

One such procedural problem that occurs is ideas of authenticity in the data as the photographer is in essence creating ‘an artificial product’ (Prosser;1998:P-119), in that a photograph can show relationships between photographer and subject, and any cultural discourse that is produced (Prosser;1998:P-119), therefore shaping and perhaps skewing the data.

 This in turn forces the photographer to ‘think outside the box’ in an effort to produce data that is unbiased in terms of relationships between the photographer and subject and any cultural expectations that will shape the data (Prosser;1998:P-118). This leads into discussions of both ‘covert’ and ‘overt’ methods of collection.

The covert collection of data, meaning photographers hiding from their subjects or using a longer lens that allows taking a photo from a distance, however this can raise ethical questions that Prosser fails to answer, preferring instead to look at procedural questions that are raised such as ‘credibility’ in that Prosser believes that ‘surveillance photography provides only superficial data’ (Prosser; 1998: P-120). This can lead to what Prosser calls ‘outsider arrogance’.

Prosser goes onto argue that the research itself should shape how the subject is accessed and that the subjects own social factors should be taken into account when collecting data. This can lead to a lack of ‘willingness’ by the subject and their social group being studied forcing the use of ‘covert’ means. Thus completely negating the use of participant observation.

 Whereas use of more open and ‘overt’ means of collection can lead to more trust being given and boundaries between ‘social domains’ (Prosser; 1998: P-120) becoming broken. This also has an added side effect of diminishing the power of social elites, found in any social group, again raising moral and ethical questions.

The use of a ‘visual diary’ in image based research is an important tool as according to Prosser a ‘diary is a self-reflexive and media-literate chronicle of the researcher’ entry, participation in and departure from the field’ (1998:P-121). The data produced in this diary becomes the method of which a researcher can review the many variables inherent in image based research in an effort to differentiate the idea of visual data from that of a visual diary. This gives the researcher the tools to allow greater comparative data with other forms of visual data whilst filtering out any ‘idiosyncrasies differ photographers might introduce’ (Prosser;1998:P-123)

Prosser then finishes with a section on ‘Analysis’ showing the various theories that can be utilised in the analysis of a photograph. The first theory mentioned is that of ‘Picture Theory’ (Prosser;1198:p-125).

Picture Theory is an attempt to show the relationship between pictures and words.  This theory is an attempt to show the connections between ‘representions on two- dimensional surfaces’ (Prosser;1998:P-125) and the links in regards to ideas of power, value and their social influence.

Prosser stresses in this section the huge importance on the chosen approach and must be in line with how photography has been used at the outset of any research model. This places huge responsibility on the researcher to ensure the correct interpretation is in place. If interpreted wrongly then this can skew conclusions from the data collected.

 Prosser believes data should be analysed on a regular basis throughout the study. This allows for new inferences to be made throughout the research process. (Prosser; 1998P-125). Context must also be taken into account as this ensures an element of trustworthiness and the limits of the data to be assessed, lending an understanding to internal and external (Prosser;1998:P-125). Any analysis without elaboration on the context, according to Prosser is unacceptable as 'prodution and reception aids our understanding of the data.

Prosser argues that correct interpretation requires a theoretical framework to be in place. This is a valuable aid in the analysis as it provides 'logic' for the sorting, indexing and organizing and categorization. (Prosser;1998:P-126)
This should begin before viewing of a photograph even takes place, and should be done in regards to how and what the photograph is to be taken.
Framework must follow the same logic that supports the researchers purpose, as photographs used in a visual record will use a different method of analysis than that of a diary approach.

In conclusion Prosser offers a well detailed plan of how to go about using photographs within a sociological context, and offers a strong and rigid framework for research design, he fail to mention important factors such as ethics and sampling method. This rigid framework also offers little flexibility which is hugely important when dealing with photographic data, as one must be able to interpret the data depending on the context of the study.


Reference

Prosser, Jon          Image Based Research: A Sourcebook for Qualitative Reserchers
                             Routledge
                             1998

Railings

Behind Bars

Both sides of the Keyhole

The Rule of Thirds

The Rule of Thirds is a compositional rule found in many of the visual arts. The rule tells us to place two imaginary lines placed at equal points along the horizontal and two equal lines on the vertical. This splits the image into thirds both along the vertical and horizontal. The rule then places emphasis on placing important compositional elements along these line or intersections. The rule of thirds helps to discourage the placement of the subject in the centre of the frame, which in turn helps to create a more striking image.
The following  before and after images will show this rule in effect.